The Poverty of Women and the Inequality of the Welfare System Essay

The Poverty of Women and the Inequality of the Welfare System - Essay Example She states that the welfare system is not designed for women on women's terms, rather, she considers that it shows, This clarifies the concepts of the dualism of the welfare structure, and how it may be broken down into two subsystems, male and female. Diana Pearce points out that older women choose to receive social security benefit as wives rather than as individuals, due to the higher income of their husbands. If they divorced during their husband's retirement, they were more likely to receive: A United Nations study, released in 1985, found that women do 75 percent of the world's work but only earn 10 percent of the world's wealth (Kirk and Okazawa 318). After 20 years, the situation has changed. Today, more women work for an income than ever before. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, women's participation in the labor force has dramatically increased from 54 percent in 1950, with a projected increase to more than 70 percent in 2010. In spite of the growing number of women in the workforce, women's wages are usually lower than men's. The question as to why, may be answered by the fact that a patriarchal system exists which gives a false picture of the workforce. Fraser's essay informs us that these patriarchal norms have influenced our welfare system too. In our welfare system, men are considered as "rights-bearing beneficiaries" whereas women are considered as "dependent clients" (Fraser, 561). Diana Pearce states that the rate of poor, women-maintained households has increased, especially if they have children. Despite the greater needs of women-maintained households, there is not enough support given from either private or public transfer. In public transfer, based on Fraser's characterization of the U.S. welfare system, there are two totally different characteristics of welfare. One is unemployment and social security welfare transfer (cash), that is designed to provide benefits for "right-bearers", of which women receive 38 percent of these programs. Yet more than 80 percent of those receiving Aid for Dependent Children (AFDC) are children of women-maintained households. Women also receive 60 percent of food stamps. Fraser assumes that receiving unemployment and social security compensation denotes more equality than receiving food stamps and Medicaid. This is because the latter welfare programs are: "considered to be family failures, generally the absence of a male breadwinner" (Fraser, 563). Diana Pearce addresses the seriousness of women's poverty, and how it has been steadily increasing, while Fraser argues how the welfare system is unfair to women. In order to reduce the "feminization of poverty", the government needs create more jobs for women and women-maintained

Leon Battista Alberti Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Leon Battista Alberti - Essay Example During the times Alberti introduced the idea of linear perspective, many other people could write a treatise about the upcoming work of art (Peter, 2007). Fortunately, he was the only fully equipped to manage the work than anyone else in the time. He had the passion for art and device of words which most of his associatesneeded. He brought a familiarity and logical baggage to the task, which was essentially giving utterances to the rules covering his new art and convinced all clienteles and artists that the art was worth taking. Alberti’s thinking that his theory and other works of those times could be precised as knowledge comes from sensory insights (Alberti, 1966). The sensory perception used in comparison with others and in relation to human being to make conclusions (Honour & Fleming, 2002). The conclusions made, approved, and applied by use of mathematics. In his theory mostly made use of, joints of pyramids with image surface, comparativetrios and side view for foreshor tening while testing with diagonal and the use of street as locus. Alberti was concerned with filmicentrances since person’s knowledge relies on sensualfacts. The fact that most solid bodies have a skin, Alberti was also concerned with the play of shades through the surface of an entity. Once these observations are, made conclusionsusing comparison since with it there is a power that illustrates within entities that are less or equal (Martin, 2003). Alberti believed that, man, nature, and mathematics are parts of one thing and that man uses mathematics to comprehend and regulate nature. In his theory, mathematics is a solutions not an end as the theory is more of appearance that reality. As Alberti is concerned, mathematics used to control the data used in art and the painting by itself. In his theory, he advocates for fertility and diversity of color codesand presumes the same variety of man positions and engagements. He says that good work of art has to consist of all sorts of living things including human beings of all ages and both male and female. He has not set formulae to guide the artist, but has put the obligation for the result in the artist’s hands. His approach of the use and the easy way of changing three-dimension world into two-dimension has helped many artist in their work and has been adopted by many across the world (Alberti, 1966). Alberti claims that a point is symbol that cannot split into several parts because it can be located on a plane and visible. He further explains how points joined to form a line and how these lines joined in rows to make a plane. A plane is known by its length and breadth and if need be the quality. Some plane qualities cannot change without changing the plane while others are due to visual effects and seems to change to the viewer even as the plane remains unchanged. A plane changes its name and shape when either its angles or lines are changed. By making angles either more acute or obtuse and short ening or lengthening the lines will completely change the plane. Alberti further explains other qualities of a plane that lie on the surface of a plane. There are two other qualities according to Alberti which although seems to change the plane, it is not actually changed (Stockstad, 2004). This depends on the power of sight as explained above, when the distance between an object and the eye changes, the object seems to

Educational psychology Essay Example for Free

Educational psychology Essay Choose a topic (objective) from one of the strand units in the Primary Science Curriculum (DES, 1999) and describe how you would assess it in a way that ensures that the assessment is integrated seamlessly in teaching and learning science. Indicate what the focus of the assessment is in terms of the science concept AND skill(s). The topic chosen must not be a task included in Hands-on Science. Indicate what the focus for the assessment is in terms of science concept and skills. In your answer refer to a) common prior conceptions (‘misconceptions’) children might  hold within this strand unit and b) how this assessment approach could facilitate constructivist approaches to the teaching of science. Please refer to at least three prescribed readings from both your assessment and curriculum science courses in your response (at least six references in all). Strand: Energy and Forces Strand Unit: Magnetism and Electricity Class: Second Class Learning Intention: The child will be enabled to purposefully play with magnets of different shapes and sizes and explore their effects on different materials (DES,1999). The Teacher Guidelines in conjunction with the Primary Curriculum for Science promotes the use of a constructivist approach to the teaching and learning of science, (DES, 1999). A constructivist approach involves the construction of our own understandings based on the world in which we live in (Brooks, 1993) and our prior knowledge in a variety of areas. This essay will be based on a constructivist approach to teaching magnets in the primary science curriculum, aimed to eliminate any common misconceptions of the child and incorporate self- assessment as the method for assessment for the lesson. The constructivist approach to teaching and learning allows children to take responsibility of their learning which can then make way for self-assessment. Lessons which incorporate self-assessment will see pupils ‘looking at their own work in a reflective way, and identify aspects of it that are good and that could be improved, and then set personal learning targets for themselves’ according to the NCCA’s (2007) Assessment in the Primary School Curriculum. This lesson will incorporate prediction, investigation, interpretation and communication as the children develop the uses of magnets of different shapes and sizes  through ‘purposeful play’ (DES, 1999). The learning intentions for this lesson will be shared using WALT and WILF in the introduction to the lesson. Children will be given their learning intentions to give them a goal or target to work towards in the course of the lesson. The children will develop their own concept maps, which will be based on any existing 1 Saoirse Geraghty Part B-Assessment 13270851 knowledge or misconceptions they may have with regard to magnets, eliciting prior knowledge from the children will give them the opportunity to focus themselves on the topic. Concept maps will be used as interpreted by Mc Cloughlin’s (2000) ‘Conceptual Mapping Frameworks in Science Education: a reader for students of Science education’. The maps will portray each of the children’s knowledge based on the topic, magnets, to be revisited in the development of the lesson and in order for children to interpret their findings and learning outcomes from course of the lesson. The development of the lesson will see the investigation of common misconceptions and experimenting with some of the children’s prior knowledge based on their concept maps they have drawn up. The children will be aware of their learning intentions from the introduction to the lesson and will need little direction which will lead to more focused learning. They will record on their concept maps any new findings they have made, and any prior misconceptions they may have had, and have come to the conclusion of can be recorded. The conclusion of the lesson will include a share session in a whole-class discussion to identify any misconceptions that may still exist and can be addressed, and also to allow children to peer-assess one another based on their findings on an informal basis. To conclude the lesson I will use ‘Traffic Lights’, which will allow me to establish after the lesson how comfortable children are with the use of magnets of different shapes and sizes and the misconceptions involved with them. To begin the lesson I will use a range of formative methods of assessment (AfL) to elicit any existing knowledge children may have with regard to magnets. As mentioned above the children will develop their own concept maps or ‘cluster maps’ (McCloughlin, 2000) to illustrate their existing knowledge, regarding their own interpretation of the physical  appearance of a magnet, uses of magnets, household items which may be magnets etc. When the children have completed their maps, I will share learning intentions with the children using the WALT and WILF methods. I will place the learning intentions on the WALT board, in child friendly language, so children can refer back to them in the development of the lesson to ensure they are still on task to achieve the success criteria. Clark (2005) promotes the sharing of learning intentions with the children that allows them to know the ‘desired outcome’ and success criteria of the task. In Barbara Collins and Michael O’Leary’s (2010)  work on Integrating Assessment with Teaching and Learning in the Visual Arts: A Study in One Classroom seen sharing learning intentions lead to lower frustration levels among children who perceive themselves as not being strong’ in a particular curricular area. In my own experience and as also stated in the Collins and O’Leary (2010) study, children declared 2 Saoirse Geraghty Part B-Assessment 13270851 that knowledge of the success criteria on a particular topic helped them to get started quicker and also led to them having less questions based on the procedures they were to undertake in  the task. For the development of the lesson, I will explore the following three common misconceptions with second class students: ? All metals are attracted to magnets ?All silver coloured items are attracted to magnets ?The larger the magnet, the stronger it is (MathScience Innovation Centre, 2007) In this section, I will organise the children into small groups and provide them with a range of household objects (paperclips, cutlery, keys, coins etc. ) and magnets of different shapes and sizes to investigate and explore these misconceptions with them. I will ask the children in  their groups to predict possible outcomes of their explorations into the misconceptions, will all of these items stick to the magnets? Will all of the magnets pick up the bunch of keys? Etc. It is expected that children will make the prediction that all of these misconceptions are true, therefore predicting before investigating allows children to use their prior knowledge to predict and they can then explore their outcomes in ‘purposeful play’ throughout the development of this lesson and then discuss their findings with their peers in the conclusion of the lesson. When they have made some predictions will write some of them on the board to be revisited after the children have worked with the objects and magnets. The children will be given sufficient time to investigate the common misconceptions and strength of the magnets using different sized magnets across the variety of objects for experimentation. I will then ensue a metacognitive approach and have the children record on their concept maps anything new they have discovered or uncovered in their investigations. By recording their findings the children are documenting what they have learned by means of self-assessment. Looking at what they knew from the outset, and recording what more they have learned, or what misconceptions they may have had have they cleared up. To conclude the lesson, I will ask the class to come together and undergo a whole class discussion based on their findings in this investigation of misconceptions of magnets. I will use AfL strategies of questioning in this discussion with the children to indicate where their new knowledge may be of use to them outside of the class, ie. Where would you use a magnet outside of class? , can you get any bigger magnets than the ones we have in class  3 Saoirse Geraghty Part B-Assessment 13270851 today? Etc. The NCCA assessment guidelines (2007) invite children to probe and prompt children in their open ended questioning, ie. ‘’I wonder if everyone in this class has the same things on their maps’’, ‘’I wonder is there anything we could learn from listening to one each other’s findings’’. Preceding this, the children will discuss with their class mates any misconceptions they may still have, that they may be able to clear up, or perhaps something they did not uncover in their findings. This form of peer-assessment allows for informal  learning, and shows children that they can assist one another, and they do not always have to come to the same conclusions in their topics to have the correct answer. When children have been given fair time to discuss and analyse their findings with their peers I will close the lesson by asking them to give me some feedback to ‘help me to teach them’ by using the traffic light method of assessment. This will be used to get an idea of any misunderstandings or confusion that may still exist among the children, and therefore can be addressed before the end of the lesson.  In the ‘Traffic Light’ method of summative assessment: ?G (green light –I understand), ?A (amber light – A little unsure), ?R (red light I dont understand). Methods of both formative (AfL) and summative (AoL) assessment have been used strategically in the Primary Science Curriculum. These methods were introduced harmoniously with the lesson on magnetism, the methods of self-assessment allowed the teacher to be the facilitator of resources and learning, but the children undertook the task independently, the development of constructivism in the classroom would see that ‘the locus  of teaching and learning does not lie in the teacher but rather the student’ (Mc Cloughlin, 2010). This was explored in this lesson, and I would use these methods of assessment in the classroom, and I think they would have a positive effect on the children’s learning. References 4 Saoirse Geraghty Part B-Assessment 13270851 Clarke, Shirley,(2005). Targeting assessment in the primary classroom: Strategies for planning, assessment, pupil feedback and target settin. , London. Collins, B. O’Leary, M. (2010). Integrating assessment with teaching and  learning in the visual arts: A study in one classroom. Oideas 52, pp. 53-61. Department of Education and Skills, (1999). Primary School Science Curriculum. Dublin: NCCA Department of Education and Skills (1999). Primary School Science Curriculum: Teacher Guidelines. Dublin: NCCA MathScience Innovation Centre, (2007). Floating above the Rest. Mc Cloughlin, Thomas, (2000). Conceptual mapping frameworks in Science education: A reader for students of Science Education. Dublin. NCCA (2007). Assessment in the Primary School Curriculum. Guidelines for Schools. Dublin: NCCA.

Defining Music From Music Theory

Defining Music From Music Theory The word music comes from the Greek mousikà ª (tekhnà ª) by way of the Latin musica. It is ultimately derived from mousa, the Greek word for muse. In ancient Greece, the word mousike was used to mean any of the arts or sciences governed by the Muses. Later, in Rome, ars musica embraced poetry as well as instrument-oriented music. In the European Middle Ages, musica was part of the mathematical, geometry, astronomy and musica. Other than that, many definitions of music implicitly hold that music is a communicative activity which conveys to the listener moods, emotions, thoughts, impressions, or philosophical, sexual, or political concepts or positions. Levi R. Bryant defines music not as a language, but as a marked-based, problem-solving method such as mathematics (Ashby 2004, 4).Because of its ability to communicate, music is sometimes described as the universal language. Yet the meaning of music is obviously culturally mediated. For example, in Western society, minor chords are of ten perceived as sad, an understanding other cultures rarely share. More precisely, music is the actualization of the possibility of any sound whatever to present to some human being a meaning which he experiences with his body-that is to say, with his mind, his feelings, his senses, his will, and his metabolism (Clifton 1983, 1). It is therefore a certain reciprocal relation established between a person, his behavior, and a sounding object (Clifton 1983, 10). Music, often an art/entertainment, is a total social fact whose definitions vary according to era and culture, according to Jean Molino (1975, 37). It is often contrasted with noise. According to musicologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez: The border between music and noise is always culturally defined-which implies that, even within a single society, this border does not always pass through the same place; in short, there is rarely a consensus. 2.1.1 Meaning of Music: A view from Music Theory Meaning of music is a vast issue that straddles many disciplines including those of philosophy, psychology, semiotics, linguistics and acoustic, and it seems that there is undying enthusiasm for exploring why and how music is meaningful to human beings, why it is such a powerful personal and social phenomenon: and why we use it as a therapeutic tool. (Colwyn Trevarthen, p.18, 2000) As music is meaningful for human beings, it can be relate to the music influence towards an individual. And in this particular research it is focus towards student lifestyle. Music is not only about influence to the people but it is also a therapy for people. Jean-Jaques Nattiez, the Canadian semiotician, opens his famous book, Music and Discourse (1990), with the following statement: This book is based upon a hypothesis that I shall immediately state: the musical is merely what we used to call the text; it is not merely a wholly composed of structures (I prefer in any case, to write of configurations). Rather, the work is also constituted by the procedures that have been endangered it (acts of composition), and the procedures to which it gives rise: acts of interpretation and perception. (p.ix) Music is made under certain procedures which mainly refer to the composition of the music itself, then followed by process to enhance the quality of the music itself. 2.2 Types of Music There are several type of music being exist in the world, however as listed below are mainly known or major type of music known by the people. 2.2.1 Hip Hop Hip Hop is the most popular form of music. Coinage of the term hip hop is often credited to Keith Cowboy, a rapper. Hip Hop is composed of rapping and DJing. The term rap is sometimes used synonymously with hip hop music, though it is also used to refer specifically to the practice of rapping, which is just one component of hip hop. Typically, hip hop music consists of one or more rappers who chant semi-autobiographic tales, often relating to a fictionalized counterpart, in an intensely rhythmic lyrical form, making abundant use of techniques like assosance, alliteration and rhyme. Though rap may be performed acapella, it is more common for the rapper to be accompanied by a DJ. Hip hop arose in New York City when DJs began isolating the percussion break from funk or disco songs. The role of the emcee (MC) arose to introduce the DJ and the music, and to keep the audience excited. By 1979, hip hop had become a commercially recorded music genre, and began to enter the American mainstream. It also began its spread across the world. In the 1990s, a form called gangsta rap became a major part of American music. The reason for hip hops rise was the decline of rock, funk, disco in the mid to late 70s. he 1980s saw intense diversification in hip hop, which developed into a more complex form. The simple tales of 1970s emcees were replaced by highly metaphoric lyrics rapping over complex, multi-layered beats. The first rap records were actually recorded by live musicians in the studio, with the rappers adding their vocals later. Aside from hip hops great popularity, the genre has had an impact on most varieties of popular music. There are performers that combine either hip hop beats or rapping with rock and roll, heavy metal, punk rock, jazz. Hip hop has hundreds of major international magazines devoted to it, most famously including The Source and Vibe. In its early years, BET (Black Entertainment Television) was almost the only television channel likely to play any hip hop music; now, several mainstream channels such as VH1 and MTV may play more hip hop music than any other style. 2.2 Rhythm Blues Rhythm and Blues also known as RB is a popular music genre combining jazz, gospel and blues influence. This kind of music is generally performed by the African American artists. This term was coined by the marketing team in the United States in 1947 by Jerry Wexler at Billboard magazine. In the 1970s, rhythm and blues was being used as a term to describe soul and funk. Blues is a vocal and instrumental form of music based on the use of the blue notes and a repetitive pattern that most often allows a 12-bar structure. It emerged in African-American communities. The blues influenced later American and Western popular music. It became a part of jazz, bluegrass, hip hop and pop songs. Rhythm is the variation of the length and accentuation of a series of sounds or other events. Rhythm involves patterns of duration that are phenomenally present in the music. It is most associated with music, dance and the majority of poetry. The study of rhythm, stress, and pitch in speech is called Prosody. 2.2.3 Jazz Jazz is the art of expression set to music. Jazz is said to be the fundamental rhythms of human life and mans contemporary reassessment of his traditional values. Volumes have been written on the origins of jazz based on black American life-styles. The early influences of tribal drums and the development of gospel, blues and field hollers seems to point out that jazz has to do with human survival and the expression of life. The meaning of jazz soon became a musical art form, whether under composition guidelines or improvisation, jazz reflected spontaneous melodic phrasing. Jazz developed in the latter part of the 19th century from black work songs, field shouts, sorrow songs, hymns, and spirituals whose harmonic, rhythmic, and melodic elements were predominantly African. Because of its spontaneous, emotional, and improvisational character, and because it is basically of black origin and association, jazz has to some extent not been accorded the degree of recognition it deserves. European audiences have often been more receptive to jazz, and thus many American jazz musicians have become expatriates. 2.2.4 Country music Any kind of Music is a form of art. Country music, the first half of billboards country and western music category, is a blend of popular musical forms originally found in the Southern United States.Many songs have been adapted to different country music styles. Few of the famous country style artists are Jim Reeves, Elvis Presley, Charlie Pride, Patsy Cline, Bob Williams; the most important instrument used in country music is the Guitar. The songs of Roy Rogers, Gene Autry, and the Sons of the Pioneers put the Western in Country and Western Music. Much of this music was written for and brought to the American public through the cowboy films of the 30s and 40s and were widely popular. 2.2.5 Rock Rock (also known as rock n roll) is a form of music that evolved in the United States in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Its roots lay mainly in rhythm and blues, country, folk, gospel, and jazz. The style quickly spread to the rest of the world and developed further, leading ultimately to modern rock music. And nowadays, rock is the dominant form of popular music in the world. The term rock and roll now covers at least two different meanings, both in common usage. The American Heritage Dictionary and the Merriam-Webster Dictionary both define rock and roll as synonymous with rock music. Conversely, Allwords.com defines the term to refer specifically to the music of the 1950s. For the purpose of differentiation, this article uses the latter definition, while the broader musical genre is discussed in the rock music article. Classic rock and roll is usually played with one or two electric guitars (one lead, one rhythm), a string bass or (after the mid-1950s) an electric bass guitar, and a drum kit. In the earliest rock and roll styles of the late 1940s and early 1950s, either the piano or saxophone was often the lead instrument, but these were generally replaced or supplemented by guitar in the middle to late 1950s. The beat is essentially a boogie woogie blues rhythm with an accentuated backbeat, the latter almost always provided by a snare drum. The massive popularity and eventual worldwide view of rock and roll gave it a unique social impact. Far beyond simply a musical style, rock and roll, as seen in movies and in the new medium of television, influenced lifestyles, fashion, attitudes, and language. It went on to spawn various sub-genres, often without the initially characteristic backbeat, that are now more commonly called simply rock music or rock. 2.3 How music can influence students life style. Rock is another type of music that had been criticized often by the media. They say that rock like bands like KoRn and Limp Bizkit give kids negative thoughts and make teens nowadays act out in violence. This however is not true. The only way rock influences teenagers in on what they wear. Kids that wear baggy pants, large shirts, and long necklaces with five inch pendants usually listen to rap. Teens that wear wide leg pants and torn up clothes usually affected from listen to alternative music. Lastly, teenagers who have pierced tongues, blue hair, and wear tight leather pants most likely will listen to rock music. Because rock had influences teens on what to wear, that does not mean that the kids will be violent. Large clothes and pierced tongues are only ways to express oneself (Smith 2). Smith obviously agrees and that the type of clothes does not make a decent teen turn bad. 2.4 The important of music among the students. Music is important to most teenagers. It is a way to get away from all of lives problems. Music can gives teenagers a different way to think than the normal way to think. KoRn is one of the bands. Parents believe they are a bad influence on their children, but they only say that because they do not want to blame themselves for being bad parents and not being able to raise their child right. Teenagers seek music as an outlet from problems in life, yet the media and parents believe that rap and rock music is to blame for teenagers problems. Rap is being blamed for the murders and crimes in cities all over America. Rock is being blamed for giving teens evil thoughts mixed with hate. Rap lyrics are about the rappers societies problems. So if person does not like the lyrics, change the suburbs in large cities to make the lyrics better. A rock lyric is all about the soul. Lyrics from rock music are deeper than any other type of music out today. That is why the music is widespread. Music is the universal language, and that is why all music is important to someone. Music also played an important role in learning and the communication of culture. We often use music to define our beliefs and convictions and are attracted to music which affirms and supports these beliefs and convictions (Michael Rich 3). Childrens television has used the combination of words, music and animation to promote learning for many years. Most parents seem to be concerned about what their young children hear and see, but tend to pay less attention to the unending media exposure that their children are confronted with daily as they grow older, especially music videos. According to the National Institute on Media and the Family, music videos are the media of choice for many adolescents and they spend between three and four hours per day listening to music which includes radio, CDs and music videos. Music helps adolescents define important social and interpersonal behaviors and can have impact on a teenagers attitudes, beliefs and judgments. It affirms and confirms a teenagers struggles, joys, sorrows, fears and fantasies (Michael Rich 3). Music is often a major part of a teenagers separate world and it is common for them to get pleasure in keeping adults out or causing adults some distress with their choices. However, they dont seem to be aware that music videos can have an influence on what they wear, how they act and what they think. Teenagers, in particular, look to media images for standards of dress, hairstyle, behavior and cultural practices (Burns Martinez 1). Musical intelligence is a way to awaken and stimulate memory and learning. Music is an effective memory aid (Anton, 1990). Students seem to enjoy music and it helps them relax and become more receptive to language learning. Anton also further points out that music combine the right hemisphere of the brain with the left hemisphere. The right side deals with creative activities,non-verbal and emotional processes while the left side governs specific verbal and logic-based learning. While, music also helps lot in students academic performance. Music is a subject to be studied and appreciated as a separate skill, it can also be used as a means for acquiring other knowledge (Lazear, 1991). Singing can build students confidence by allow them to enjoy a degree of fluency in English before they have achieved it in speaking (Zatorre, 2000). Also, songs can be incorporated to all language skills (listening, reading, writing and speaking). Using music in the classroom has its own beneficial purposes. Singing helps students to improve their pronunciation and stress (Wilcox, 1995). Students would feel happy as memory is generally associated with an emotion. Music can help them to learn structures and expressions far more complicated than they could learn through a grammar lesson which only involve verbal skills. Often not, students are able to improve their listening skills where words often rhyme or are repeated. They also may be able to remember what they have learned, and are able to call upon the material when needed as they begin to produce language (Newham, 1995). Using music may also break the monotomy of the lesson where usually people have a 20 minute attention span and after the songs, students become more alert. With higher-level students, using very soft rainforest music helps their concentration and music without words is good for relaxation (Lozanov, 1978). Generally, listening to music in class requires engaged attention and in turn, both reflection and for the development of imaginative responses to what students hear and read (Dvorak, 1984). 2.5 Future of Music From one point of view, the present age offers a moment of exceptional musical excitement and opportunity. With so many technical and stylistic alternatives at hand, plus a constant stream of technological advances opening up ever new areas of exploration , todays composers would seem free to follow their imaginations at will, to the outermost reaches of what is musically possible. (Morgan Robert P., p488) Music can be said to express the general spirit of an age, moreover, it cannot be expected to a mirror of consensus that does not exist elsewhere. At least until there is a profound shift of contemporary consciousness; it seems likely that music will retain its present pluralistic and uncentered quality. For music to change the world will have to change. In a more specific view, music will change following the trend by its users. Thus, each type of music actually represent certain level age of an individual, whereby different age of person may have different taste of music.

Importance of the Forest in The Scarlet Letter :: Scarlet Letter essays

Importance of the Forest in The Scarlet Letter "The path strangled onward into the mystery of the primeval forest"(179). This sentence displays just one of the multiple personalities that the forest symbolizes in The Scarlet Letter written by Nathaniel Hawthorn. In the Scarlet Letter the forest symbolizes much more than one might imagine. Each character brings out a different side of the forest, however the forest also brings out a different side in each character. For some the forest may be a place of sinister thoughts and wrong doing, but for others it is a place of happiness and freedom. The first encounter with the forest we have symbolizes just some of the evil that lingers within the darkness of the forest. As Hester and Pearl are leaving governor Bellinghams estate they are confronted by mistress Hibbins who explains that the witches are meeting in the forest, and she then invites Hester to become more deeply involved with her evil ways. "Wilt thou go with us tonight"(113) asked mistress Hibbins, yet Hester refused to sign her name in the black mans book on that night. She explains that the only reason she does not sign is because Pearl is still in her life. At this time the forest itself is a open door to another world, a wicked world that would take her away from her present situation, but that is not the only door that the forest holds. The forest is an open door to love and freedom for both Hester and Dimmesdale. It is a place where the letter on their bodies can no longer have an effect on them if they choose. A world ruled by nature and governed by natural law as opposed to the artificial strict community with its man made puritan laws. Its as if the forest represents a key to the shackles the Hester and Dimmesdale have been forced to wear, all that they have to do is unlock it. Although if they choose not to unlock them, they begin to dwell on the things that they have done to deserve the shackles. In this the forest represents a thing of truth, weather it be good or bad. In pearls eyes the forest has a totally different concept.

The Plague as a Metaphor in Shelleys The Last Man :: Shelley The Last Man

The Plague as a Metaphor in Shelley's The Last Man      Ã‚   The Last Man was Mary Shelley's most ambitious and experimental work. Necessitating that a plague, which decimates mankind, is justified in its pursuit, Mary Shelley creates a world where utopian ideals can cause the destruction of mankind, if they are not checked by moral and ethical standards. Published in 1826, the novel was widely pilloried by a public who found it's gloomy tone and high Romanticism to be 'out of touch' with a more progressive society. Mary Shelley's concept of humanity decimated by a deadly plague affronted progressive politicians as godless and as a result, the novel was banned in Austria and became more of an in topic at dinner parties than a book to be seriously read. Since its publication, Mary Shelley scholars have ignored The Last Man and concentrated on Frankenstein because of the novel's reflection of the influential Romantic circle of Lord Byron and Percy Shelley. It wasn't until the feminist movement of the 1970's that the novel underwent a re birth and became critically judged as a work far superior to Frankenstein. Written three years after the death of Percy Shelley, The Last Man is a reflection of the political influence of William Godwin and the Romantic ideals of Lord Byron and Percy Shelley. Despite her initial desire to dedicate the work to the ideology of these men, The Last Man serves as Mary Shelley's repudiation of the utopian ideal perpetuated by Godwin, Shelley and Lord Byron. The plague serves as a metaphor for the failure of the utopian ideal to support the traditional needs of the family. As a biographical and political novel, The Last Man is Mary Shelley's quest to understand her husband, father and Lord Byron's political ideals and their subsequent failure to support her and her children.    Mary Shelley led a most extraordinary life. As the daughter of the radical writers, Mary Wollstonecraft and William Godwin, it appeared to be Mary's destiny to earn a living through her writing. As she states in her 1831 preface to Frankenstein, "It is not singular that, as the daughter of two persons of distinguished literary celebrity, I should have very early in life thought of writing" (Hindle 5). After the death of Percy Shelley in 1822, Mary spent the next three years trying to atone for what she believed were her sins against Shelley.

Freud and Jung: Early Psychoanalytic Theories Essay

Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung were two influential theorists in psychology (Nystul, M. , 2005). Freud was considered the father of psychology and believed that human behavior was the result of unconscious conflict deep in the mind of individuals (Nystul, M. , 2005). Jung’s theory developed directly out of Freud’s psychoanalytic approach; however he refuted several of Freud’s key points and placed an even greater emphasis on the unconscious. Freud and Jung were the key figures of the psychoanalytic approach to psychology; however their theories differed on several key points (Nystul, M. , 2005). Freud’s psychoanalytic theory was the seed for many subsequent theorists’ work. His main assertion was that human behavior and personality derived from the unconscious conflict that arose in individuals’ unconscious (Fayek, 2005). He postulated that the unconscious was a combination of the id, which was the primal drive for all human needs (e. g. , sex, hunger), the superego, which could be likened to the internalization of societal values and standards (e. g. , the conscience), and the moderating ego that was the rational part of thought that controlled the impulses of the id and superego. Anxiety arose when individuals were confronted with fears of danger within reality (Shill, 2004). Neurotic anxiety occurred when individuals were confronted with dangers that arose in childhood, and can be connected to his five stages of psychosexual development, where personality developed. The five stages of psychosexual development were connected to erogenous zones that children were fixated on until their needs were met and were able to move on developmentally. The five stages include oral, anal, phallic, and genital stages of development. The id relied on the stimulation of these zones until the child would move into the next developmental stage. If an individual were unable to move into the next stage, then they would fixate into that particular stage, and this could mediate personality development (Garcia, 1995). For instance, adults that had not moved on through the anal stage of psychosexual development are representative of type-A personalities such that they are characterized as uptight, as children are as they are focused upon controlling potty training and bowel movements between ages one and three. Furthermore, Freud’s theory was focused on sexual issues and conflict. For instance, he developed the Electra complex and Oedipus complex such that girls became jealous of their mothers as they competed for their father’s sexual attention. Similarly, boys became jealous of their fathers through penis envy as they sought the sexual attention of their mothers and secretly wanted to kill their fathers (Garcia, 1995). Freud used assessment methods to probe the unconscious of his patients. He believed that the unconscious used several techniques to keep conflicts in the unconscious and used methods to tap into his patients’ unconscious through psychoanalytic therapy. For instance, he developed free association where patients said whatever came to their minds, similar to a verbal daydream (Macmillian, 2001). This helped patients to recall events that had been suppressed and so they could achieve catharsis in order to relieve their disturbing symptoms. Freud also used hypnosis in his early therapy sessions. Moreover, Freud conducted dream analysis where he would interpret dreams in order to tap into the unconscious on an individual dream by dream basis (Schept, 2007). The unconscious was also a main point of interest in Jung’s psychoanalytic approach to psychology. However, Jung disagreed with Freud on three main points (Bergmann, 2008). First, Jung refuted the main importance of sexual anxiety in his theory. Instead, Jung stressed that sexual stress was more of a generalized aspect that impacted a psychic energy of a person but included other aspects. Second, Jung believed that individuals were impacted by past and future events, while Freud postulated that individuals were impacted solely by events in an individual’s life. Finally, Jung placed a greater importance on the unconscious and developed the idea of the collective unconscious that was retrospective and prospective. Jung developed the idea of the collective unconscious and expanded the idea of the unconscious itself (Leader, 2009). He believed that there was an aspect of the unconscious that included all of the past experiences of humankind. He believed that this information was passed down generation by generation as an accumulation of human and prehuman experiences that helps the species to develop as a whole. He also believed that all individuals have a personal unconscious that contains information that was once known but has been suppressed because it was too painful to remember. Within the collective unconscious, there were a series of archetypes or sets of universal experiences within the collective unconscious. For example, there was the persona archetype that is a mask that an individual present to others during interactions in order to hide the true self from others. The darkest archetype was the shadow archetype that included the evils that human beings are responsible for. Other archetypes include the anima, animus, and self archetypes. Jung also believed that personality was the response of psychological types that were based on the attitudes and functions of individuals (Dolliver, 1994). These types included the extraverted (viz. , thinking, feeling, sensing, intuiting) and introverted (viz. , thinking, feeling, sensing, intuiting). Depending upon type, individuals behaved and interacted differently with others and the environment. These eight psychological types may be likened to an early version of trait theory and other later personality theories. Moreover, Jung believed that personality developed throughout the lifetime, and individuals’ personalities did not appear as a result from unresolved conflict in childhood as Freud believed. Instead, individuals were continuously moving toward self-realization and individuation, which makes Jung’s psychoanalytic approach more uplifting in comparison to Freud’s more pessimistic view of human development (Leader, 2009). Jung’s assessment practices were similar but differed from Freud’s methods. First, Jung used a word-association test such that patients would respond to a word that the therapist said with the first word that came to their mind (Jung, 1907). This helped to tap into complexes of his patients. He also used symptom analysis to interpret the free associations that patients made. Similar to Freud, Jung used a dream analysis technique but he worked with a series to dreams instead of singular dreams as Freud did to develop a thematic interpretation based upon free response (Schept, 2007). While both Freud and Jung’s theories led to the development of psychology as a scientific field, neither of these theories was based directly upon systematic experimentation. Instead, these psychoanalytic theories were based upon case studies of individual clients (Thompson, 2002). Patient interviews were not recorded verbatim, and were based upon a small number of patients. While the reliability of theory development was not optimal for generalization to society as a whole, these early ideas and theories helped modern scientists develop research questions that have been tested through empirical research methods, and have led to the development of more modern theories of behavior and personality. Without the early contributions of Freud and Jung, the face of psychology may look very different today. References Bergmann, M. S. (2008). Freud/Jung: Enlightenment, romanticism, and the irrational. Issues in pyhoanalytic Psychology, 30 (1), 43-58. Dolliver, R. H. (1994). Classifying the personality theories and personalities of Adler, Freud, and Jung with introversion/extraversion. Individual Psychology: Journal of Alderian Theory, Research & Practice, 50 (2), 192-202. Fayek, A. (2005). The centrality of the system Ucs in the theory of psychanalysis: the nonrepressed unconscious. Psychanalytic Psychology, 22 (4), 524-543. Garcia, J. L. (1995). 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